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Many multicultural scholars believe it is easier for people of color, sexual minorities, and women to deal with overt and deliberate forms of bigotry than with subtle and unintentional forms, because no guesswork is involved (Dovidio & Gaertner, 2000; Hebl, Foster, Mannix, & Dovidio, 2002; Salvatore & Shelton, 2007; D. W. Sue, 2003; Swim & Cohen, 1997). Subtle and unintentional forms of discrimination may be more harmful for targets because subtle discrimination is more frequent than overt forms, thus presenting as a chronic stressor (Jones, Peddie, Gilrane, King, & Gray, 2016). It is the unconscious and unintentional forms of bias that create the overwhelming problems for members of members of marginalized groups in our society (D. W. Sue, 2003, 2005).

Bias, prejudice, and discrimination in North America have undergone a transformation, especially in the post–Civil Rights era when the democratic belief in the equality of marginalized groups (e.g., people of color, White women, and LGBTQ individuals) directly clashes with their long history of oppression in society (Dovidio & Gaertner, 2000; Satcher & Leggett, 2007; Swim, Mallett, & Stangor, 2004). Some scholars refer to color‐blind racism as the dominant racial ideology of the post–Civil Rights era (Neville, Awad, Brooks, Flores, & Bluemel, 2013). The term “color‐blind racial ideology” refers to the belief that race and racism do not matter in society. Color‐blind racism and other subtle and unconscious forms of prejudice have been linked to discriminatory behaviors. More specifically, implicit racial bias has been linked to jury decisions (Lynch & Haney, 2011), police shootings of unarmed Black civilians (Nix, Campbell, Byers, & Alpert, 2015), and physician interactions with patients (Penner, Phelan, Earnshaw, Albrecht, & Dovidio, 2017). Research also indicates that sexism and heterosexism have not decreased but instead have become more ambiguous, making them more difficult to identify and acknowledge (Hylton, 2005; Morrison & Morrison, 2003; Swim & Cohen, 1997). One study, for example, documented that benevolent sexism attitudes were more commonly endorsed than hostile sexism attitudes among male science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) students; and, accordingly, female STEM students perceived more frequent experiences of benevolent compared to hostile forms of sexism (Kuchynka et al., 2018).